Ibsen, Henrik

[Zhou, Zuoren] Zhong, Yao. Bai nian lai xi yang xue shu zhi hui gu [ID D26252].
Zhou Zuoren schreibt : "In the past one hundred years, Norway produced two writers : one is Ibsen, and the other Björnson. Ibsen is a great naturalist. His works are full of social criticism."

Lu, Xun. Mo luo shi li shuo = On the power of Mara poetry. [ID D26228]. [Auszüge].
Lu Xun erwähnt George Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, Thomas Carlyle, William Shakespeare, John Milton, Walter Scott, John Keats, Friedrich Nietzsche, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henrik Ibsen [erste Erwähnung], Nikolai Wassil'evich Gogol, Platon, Dante, Napoleon I., Ernst Moritz Arndt, Friedrich Wilhelm III., Theodor Körner, Edward Dowden, John Stuart Mill, Matthew Arnold, John Locke, Robert Burns, Aleksandr Sergeevich Pushkin, Adam Mickiewicz, Sandor Petöfi, Wladimir Galaktionowitsch Korolenko.

Lu Xun schreibt :
"He who has searched out the ancient wellspring will seek the source of the future, the new wellspring. O my brothers, the works of the new life, the surge from the depths of the new source, is not far off". Nietzsche...
Later the poet Kalidasa achieved fame for his dramas and occasional lyrics ; the German master Goethe revered them as art unmatched on earth or in heaven...
Iran and Egypt are further examples, snapped in midcourse like well-ropes – ancient splendor now gone arid. If Cathay escapes this roll call, it will be the greatest blessing life can offer. The reason ? The Englishman Carlyle said : "The man born to acquire an articulate voice and grandly sing the heart's meaning is his nation's raison d'être. Disjointed Italy was united in essence, having borne Dante, having Italian. The Czar of great Russia, with soldiers, bayonets, and cannon, does a great feat in ruling a great tract of land. Why has he no voice ? Something great in him perhaps, but he is a dumb greatness. When soldiers, bayonets and cannon are corroded, Dante's voice will be as before. With Dante, united ; but the voiceless Russian remains mere fragments".
Nietzsche was not hostile to primitives ; his claim that they embody new forces is irrefutable. A savage wilderness incubates the coming civiliization ; in primitives' teeming forms the light of day is immanent...
Russian silence ; then stirring sound. Russia was like a child, and not a mute ; an underground stream, not an old well. Indeed, the early 19th century produced Gogol, who inspired his countrymen with imperceptible tear-stained grief, compared by some to England's Shakespeare, whom Carlyle praised and idolized. Look around the worls, where each new contending voice has its own eloquence to inspire itself and convey the sublime to the world ; only India and those other ancient lands sit motionless, plunged in silence...
I let the past drop here and seek new voices from abroad, an impulse provoked by concern for the past. I cannot detail each varied voice, but none has such power to inspire and language as gripping as Mara poetry. Borrowed from India, the 'Mara' – celestial demon, or 'Satan' in Europe – first denoted Byron. Now I apply it to those, among all the poets, who were committed to resistance, whose purpose was action but who were little loved by their age ; and I introduce their words, deeds, ideas, and the impact of their circles, from the sovereign Byron to a Magyar (Hungarian) man of letters. Each of the group had distinctive features and made his own nation's qualities splendid, but their general bent was the same : few would create conformist harmonies, but they'd bellow an audience to its feet, these iconoclasts whose spirit struck deep chords in later generations, extending to infinity...
Humanity began with heroism and bravado in wars of resistance : gradually civilization brought culture and changed ways ; in its new weakness, knowing the perils of charging forward, its idea was to revert to the feminine ; but a battle loomed from which it saw no escape, and imagination stirred, creating an ideal state set in a place as yet unattained if not in a time too distant to measure. Numerous Western philosophers have had this idea ever since Plato's "Republic". Although there were never any signs of peace, they still craned toward the future, spirits racing toward the longed-for grace, more committed than ever, perhaps a factor in human evolution...
Plato set up his imaninary "Republic", alleged that poets confuse the polity, and should be exiled ; states fair or foul, ideas high or low – these vary, but tactics are the same...
In August 1806 Napoleon crushed the Prussian army ; the following July Prussia sued for peace and became a dependency. The German nation had been humiliated, and yet the glory of the ancient spirit was not destroyed. E.M. Arndt now emerged to write his "Spirit of the Age" (Geist der Zeit), a grand and eloquent declaration of independence that sparked a blaze of hatred for the enemy ; he was soon a wanted man and went to Switzerland. In 1812 Napoleon, thwarted by the freezing conflagration of Moscow, fled back to Paris, and all of Europe – a brewing storm – jostled to mass its forces of resistance. The following year Prussia's King Friedrich Wilhelm III called the nation to arms in a war for three causes : freedom, justice, and homeland ; strapping young students, poets, and artists flocked to enlist. Arndt himself returned and composed two essays, "What is the people's army" and "The Rhine is a great German river, not its border", to strengthen the morale of the youth. Among the volunteers of the time was Theodor Körner, who dropped his pen, resigned his post as Poet of the Vienne State Theater, parted from parents and beloved, and took up arms. To his parents he wrote : "The Prussian eagle, being fierce and earnest, has aroused the great hope of the German people. My songs without exception are spellbound by the fatherland. I would forgot all joys and blessings to die fighting for it ! Oh, the power of God has enlightened me. What sacrifice could be more worthy than one for our people's freedom and the good of humanity ? Boundless energy surges through me, and I go forth ! " His later collection "Lyre and sword" (Leier und Schwert), also resonates with this same spirit and makes the pulse race when one recites from it. In those days such a fervent awareness was not confined to Körner, for the entire German youth were the same. Körner's voice as the voice of all Germans, Körner's blood was the blood of all Germans. And so it follows that neither State, nor Emperor, nor bayonet, but the nation's people beat Napoleon. The people all had poetry and thus the poets' talents ; so in the end Germany did not perish. This would have been inconceivable to those who would scrap poetry in their devotion to utility, who clutch battered foreign arms in hopes of defending hearth and home. I have, first, compared poetic power with rice and beans only to shock Mammon's disciples into seeing that gold and iron are far from enough to revive a country ; and since our nation has been unable to get beyond the surface of Germany and France, I have shown their essence, which will lead, I hope, to some awareness. Yet this is not the heart of the matter...
England's Edward Dowden once said : "We often encounter world masterpieces of literature or art that seem to do the world no good. Yet we enjoy the encounter, as in swimming titanic waters we behold the vastness, float among waves and come forth transformed in body and soul. The ocean itself is but the heave and swell of insensible seas, nor has it once provided us a single moral sentence or a maxim, yet the swimmer's health and vigor are greatly augmented by it"...
If everything were channeled in one direction, the result would be unfulfilling. If chill winter is always present, the vigor of spring will never appear ; the physical shell lives on, but the soul dies. Such people live on, but hey have lost the meaning of life. Perhaps the use of literaure's uselessness lies here. John Stuart Mill said, "There is no modern civilization that does not make science its measure, reason its criterion, and utility its goal". This is the world trend, but the use of literature is more mysterious. How so ? It can nurture our imagination. Nurturing the human imagination is the task and the use of literature...
Matthew Arnold's view that "Poetry is a criticism of life" has precisely this meaning. Thus reading the great literary works from Homer on, one not only encounters poetry but naturally makes contact with life, becomes aware of personal merits and defects one by one, and naturally strives harder for perfection. This effect of literature has educational value, which is how it enriches life ; unlike ordinary education, it shows concreteley a sense of self, valor, and a drive toward progress. The devline and fall of a state has always begun with is refusal to heed such teaching...
[The middle portion of this essay is a long and detailed description of Lu Xun's exemplary Mara poets, including Byron, Shelley, Pushkin, Lermontov, Michiewicz, Slowacki and Petöfi].
In 18th-century England, when society was accustomed to deceit, and religion at ease with corruption, literature provided whitewash through imitations of antiquity, and the genuine voice of the soul could not he heard. The philosopher Locke was the first to reject the chronic abuses of politics and religion, to promote freedom of speech and thought, and to sow the seeds of change. In literature it was the peasant Burns of Scotland who put all he had into fighting society, declared universal equality, feared no authority, nor bowed to gold and silk, but poured his hot blood into his rhymes ; yet this great man of ideas, not immediately the crowd's proud son, walked a rocky outcast road to early death. Then Byron and Shelley, as we know, took up the fight. With the power of a tidal wave, they smashed into the pillars of the ancien régime. The swell radiated to Russia, giving rise to Pushkin, poet of the nation ; to Poland, creating Mickiewicz, poet of revenge ; to Hungary, waking Petéfi, poet of patriotism ; their followers are too many to name. Although Byron and Shelley acquired the Mara title, they too were simply human. Such a fellowship need not be labeled the "Mara School", for life on earth is bound to produce their kind. Might they not be the ones enlightened by the voice of sincerity, who, embracing that sincerity, share a tacit understanding ? Their lives are strangely alike ; most took up arms and shed their blood, like swordsmen who circle in public view, causing shudders of pleasure at the sight of mortal combat. To lack men who shed their blood in public is a disaster for the people ; yet having them and ignoring them, even proceeding to kill them, is a greater disaster from which the people cannot recover...
"The last ray", a book by the Russian author Korolenko, records how an old man teaches a boy to read in Siberia : “His book talked of the cherry and the oriole, but these didn't exist in frozen Siberia. The old man explained : It's a bird that sits on a cherry branch and carols its fine songs”. The youth reflected. Yes, amid desolation the youth heard the gloss of a man of foresight, although he had not heard the fine song itself. But the voice of foresight does not come to shatter China's desolation. This being so, is there nothing for us but reflection, simply nothing but reflection ?

Ergänzung von Guo Ting :
Byron behaved like violent weaves and winter wind. Sweeping away all false and corrupt customs. He was so direct that he never worried about his own situation too much. He was full of energy, and spirited and would fight to the death without losing his faith. Without defeating his enemy, he would fight till his last breath. And he was a frank and righteous man, hiding nothing, and he spoke of others' criticism of himself as the result of social rites instead of other's evil intent, and he ignored all those bad words. The truth is, at that time in Britain, society was full of hypocrites, who took those traditions and rites as the truth and called anyone who had a true opinion and wanted to explore it a devil.

Ergänzung von Yu Longfa :
Die Bezeichnung Mara stammt aus dem Indischen und bedeutet Himmelsdämon. Die Europäer nennen das Satan. Ursprünglich bezeichnete man damit Byron. Jetzt weist das auf alle jene Dichter hin, die zum Widerstand entschlossen sind und deren Ziel die Aktion ist, ausserdem auf diejenigen Dichter, die von der Welt nicht sehr gemocht werden. Sie alle gehören zu dieser Gruppe. Sie berichten von ihren Taten und Überlegungen, von ihren Schulen und Einflüssen. Das beginnt beim Stammvater dieser Gruppe, Byron, und reicht letztlich hin bis zu dem ungarischen Schriftsteller Petöfi. Alle diese Dichter sind in ihrem äusserlichen Erscheinungsbild sehr unterschiedlich. Jeder bringt entsprechend den Besoderheiten des eigenen Landes Grossartiges hervor, aber in ihrer Hauptrichtung tendieren sie zur Einheitlichkeit. Meistens fungieren sie nicht als Stimme der Anpassung an die Welt und der einträchtigen Freude. Sobald sie aus voller Kehle ihre Stimme erheben, geraten ihre Zuhörer in Begeisterung, bekämpfen das Himmlische und widersetzen sich den gängigen Sitten. Aber ihr Geist rührt auch tief an die Seelen der Menschen nachfolgender Generationen und setzt sich fort bis in die Unendlichkeit. Sie sind ohne Ausnahme vital und unnachgiebig und treten für die Wahrheit ein… Nietzsche lehnt den Wilden nicht ab, da er neue Lebenskraft in sich berge und gar nicht anders könne, als ehrlich zu sein. So stammt die Zivilisation denn auch aus der Unzivilisation. Der Wilde erscheint zwar roh, besitzt aber ein gütmütiges Inneres. Die Zivilisation ist den Blüten vergleichbar und die Unzivilisation den Knospen. Vergleicht man jedoch die Unzivilisation mit den Blüten, so entspricht die Zivilisation den Früchten. Ist die Vorstufe bereits vorhanden, so besteht auch Hoffnung.

Sekundärliteratur
Yu Longfa : Lu Xun befasst sich zwar nicht ausführlich mit Friedrich Nietzsche, aber auf der Suche nach dem 'Kämpfer auf geistigem Gebiet', dessen charakteristische Eigenschaften, besonders die Konfiguration des Übermenschen, macht er ausfindig. Lu Xun ist überzeugt, dass die Selbststärkung eines Menschen und der Geist der Auflehnung kennzeichnend für den Übermenschen sind. In Anlehnung an den Übermenschen zitiert er aus Also sprach Zarathustra : "Diejenigen, die auf der Suche nach den Quellen des Altertums alles ausgeschöpft haben, sind im Begriff, die Quellen der Zukunft, die neuen Quellen zu suchen. Ach, meine Brüder, die Schaffung des neuen Lebens und das Sprudeln der neuen Quellen in der Tiefe, das dürft wohl nicht weit sein !"

Tam Kwok-kan : Earliest reference to Henrik Ibsen. This is the first Chinese article that discusses in a comprehensive manner the literary pursuits of the Byronic poets. Lu Xun ranks Ibsen as one of these poets and compares the rebellious spirit exemplified in Ibsen's drama to Byron's satanic tendency. Lu Xun had a particular liking for the play An enemy of the people, in which Ibsen presented his ideas through the iconoclast Dr. Stockmann, who in upholding truth against the prejudices of society, is attacked by the people. Lu Xun thought that China needed more rebels like Ibsen who dared to challenge accepted social conventions. By introducing Ibsen in the image of Dr. Stockmann, the moral superman, together with the satanic poets, Lu Xun believed that he could bring in new elements of iconoclasm in the construction of a modern Chinese consciousness. As Lu Xun said, he introduced Ibsen's idea of individualism because he was frustrated with the Chinese prejudice toward Western culture and with the selfishness popular among the Chinese.

Chu Chih-yu : Lu Xun adapted for the greater part of Mara poetry his Japanese sources (Kimura Katataro), he also added some of his own comments and speculations.

Guo Ting : Given Lu Xun's leading position in the Chinese literary field at that time, his defense of Byron was powerful and set the overarching tone for the time of Byron when he was first introduced to Chinese readers.

Liu Xiangyu : On the power of Mara poetry itself is an expression of Byronism to 'speak out against the establisment and conventions' and to 'stir the mind'. Lu Xun criticized traditional Chinese culture and literature.

Henrik Ibsen : Rezeption in China.
Tam Kwok-kan : Ibsen has been considered by many literary historians as the most important source, besides Goethe, of Western influence in modern Chinese literary thinking. Most of Ibsen's major plays have been translated and staged in China, and scholars in the field of modern Chinese intellectual history fully acknowledge the contribution Ibsen made to the May 4th movement that marked the beginning of modern Chinese culture.
To the European critics, Ibsen belongs to the present and is mainly a dramatist, not a social critic. But in China, Ibsen is often considered a revolutonary figure and has been variously represented in Chinese politics in the past ninty years.
The 19th-century critics tended to think of Ibsen's plays as stage reproductions of actual experiences in life. In the reception of Ibsen in both the East and the West, there have been different emphases, each of which employs the use of a different interpretive strategy. The two kinds of interpretation, Marxist-socialist on the one hand and aesthetic-formalist on the other, are the result of not only a difference in reception strategies, but also a difference in politics.
In regarding Ibsen as a dramatist or as a social critic, the difference lies in the critics' choice of strategy whether or not there is the belief of correspondence between a dramatist's works and social reality.
Ibsen's works were introduced to China much later than they were in Japan and in the countries in Western Europe and North America. China's nation-wide reception of Ibsen occured around the end of the 1910s and was necessarily affected by the coexistence of the moralist and socialist-Marxist codes in European interpretations of Ibsen. From the beginning, the modern Chinese theatre was a social and political theatre. Although there were no distinctively formed Ibsenite groups in China, there were dramatists, such as Hong Shen and Tian Han, who openly professed themselves 'Chinese Ibsens'. Ibsen's influence in China is manifested in two aspects : sociopolitical and artistic (both literary and theatrical). Ibsen was regarded by the Chinese critics and dramatists both as a social-realist and as a romantic playwright. The history of the reception of ibsen in China can be divided roughtly into four major periods : 1908-1927, 1928-1948, 1949-1976, and 1977-present. In the first period, Chinese interpretations of Ibsen were closely associated with social movements and were greatly influenced by the moralist code then prevalent in Europe. Ibsen's social influence was first seen in the advocycy of individualism and iconoclasm in the writings of Lu Xun and Hu Shi. The social movements in China gave the interpretation of Ibsens's plays a new political context by which the critics conveyed their messages to Chinese readers. Ibsen was hailed as a champion of individualism, uncompromising moralist, and advocate of feminism. The iconoclastic elements derived from Iben's plays were most valued in this period as a means of resistance against the traditioal moral system deeply rooted in China's confucian collectivism. One of the major reasons for introducing Ibsen to China was that the messages derived from his plays constituted a powerful attack on the conventional moral institutions in China. Ibsen was hailed as a figure of hope and new values. Chinese dramatists werde more attracted to his explosive themes than to his dramatic subtlety. Almost all the social problem plays in the early 1920s were modelled after Ibsen's plays, without considering the appropriateness of such an approach to the theatre. The influence became so powerful that even well established Chinese dramatists could not resist the temptation to imitate Ibsen, which at that time was considered by some critics as an act of contempt equivalent to plagiarism.
The second period in the reception of Ibsen was accompanied by the gradual maturity of modern Chinese drama and literary criticism. Ibsen attracted the attention of more and more serious Chinese dramatists and critics, such as Xiong Foxi and Chen Zhice. Chinese dramatists gradually shifted their interest to the artistry in Ibsen's dram in the late 1920s when the zeal for social reform in China was in low tide. In the late 1920s and 1930s some Chinese critics called for a reconsideration of Ibsen from the perspective of art, still the general tendency was to moralize him, which was supported by the practical view that Ibsen's drama was useful for social reform in China. Unfortunately the war between China and Japan broke out and destroyed the hope of developing Chinese drama along a normal artistic path. Political considerations and the nationalist responsibility of saving China from disgrace and sufferings again became the first concern of serious, patriotic writers. The Chinese interest in Ibsen revived during the war years because of the need for a new dramatic form that could arouse the reader's emotional response. In a new context of oppression and invasion, the theme of A doll's house already interpreted as 'exploitation of women' was redefined as 'exploitation of Chinese women under foreign invasion'. Almost all the Chinese stage productions of A doll's house in the years from 1937 to 1945 were adaptations to serve as a nationalist discourse for the patriotic cause.
The third period in the reception of Ibsen in China started in 1949 and ended around 1976. In these years, Chinese interpretations followed closely the footsteps of the Soviet bloc. Friedrich Engels's analysis of Ibsen's plays in terms of 'class struggle' and the redefinition of the 'Ibsenian concept of majority', which were considered necessarily reactionary with reference to 'the bourgeois class in the 19th-century semi-feudal Norwegian society'. Although social and political events similar to those depicted in Ibsen's social plays did not exist in China in these thirty years, Ibsen was still revered in terms of his historic importance as a critic of the bourgeois social system and thus was taken as politically useful to the new socialist system. The well-made dramatic conflicts in Ibsen's plays were taken as reflections of class struggle in capitalist society. Hence, for the Chinese Marxists every reading of Ibsen's social plays was a lession on the evils of capitalism. For Chinese dramatists, Ibsen's plays, redefined in the light of socialist realism, were excellent examples to learn how to reproduce class struggles as dramatic conflicts on the stage.
The new social and political reality in China after 1976 allows Ibsen readers to see that there are alternatives to the vulgarized political doctrines in the interpretation of literature. There was in effect little literary criticism in the first thirty years of the People's republic. Government intervention in the interpretation of an author allowed little freedom beyond politics. The new political and social environment has given rise to the influx of the one-condemned 'Western bourgeois literary criticism' into socialist China. Chinese critics thus have an opportunity to come into contact with contemporary Western orientation in literary studies, resulting in the gradual adoption of the easthetic-formalist code.
One of Ibsen's contributions to the Chinese theatre is the inception of a realistic stage. For many years, illusionistic acting in the fashion of Stanislavsky's style and Ibsen's realistic drama has been the main-stream in the modern Chinese theatre. Ibsen's first and obvious impact on the Chinese stage was upon the style of acting, the use of props and stage design : the first elements of external realistic technique.
Ibsen was regarded as a realistic playwright in China mainly for the social implications of his plays, very seldom for the true-to-life presentation of his themes and even less often for the dramatic techniques, which enable his plays to be realistic. With regard to the stage conventions in contemporary China, Ibsen's social problem play and 'the fourth wall' mode of presentation, together with Stanislavky's acting style, have become the mainstream in Chinese theatre, which also affects the perspective of drama critics, who have gradually and unconsciously formed a fixed view of drama that excludes other possibilities of stage style.
In the reception of Ibsen, the Chinese views had been subjected to influences from both the Anglo-American and socialist sources. While the socialist views emphasized social reference and class struggle, the Anglo-American views tended to stress the aesthetic values of Ibsen's works.

Elisabeth Eide ; Neither Hu Shi nor Lu Xun ever evaluated Ibsen from an aesthetic point of view. Ibsen was constantly regarded as an ideological writer whose characters might be transformed into positive or negative stereotypes. The complexita of Ibsen's characters had to be reduced to schematically idealized stereotypes in order to function in the Chines society as generative models. The role of Nora could not be invested with sufficient positive elements to serve as an emblem for female emancipation in China.
Realism is one of the elements that was underlined in the transmission of Ibsen's ideas, but it must not be regarded as originating with Ibsen. Ibsen was regarded as a bourgeois author, and Chinese writers who took up his views also set them in a bourgeois context. They emphasized elements in Ibsen's creative works that are associated with a liberal bourgeois society such as freedom and liberation. Hu Shi introduced his concept of Ibsenism in drama as well as in intellectual debate.
The Chinese recrated the world that Ibsen had created and adapted it to Chinese circumstances. Ibsen's role was always that of an iconoclast. He was regarded as a representative of the new thought needed to transform the Chinese world. His dramatic version of topics such as heredity were taken as science dramatized.
Ibsen represented ideology more than aestheticism in so far as his plays were evaluated from the point of view of what model or ideal his characters might serve in the formation of a new, liberal policy in China.

He Chengzhou : The development of Chinese modern drama has been closely associated with the reception of Ibsen, which has undergone a process of widening vision of Ibsen from a realist, to a romantic and then to a symbolist.

Guo Moruo studiert Medizin und ab 1915 Englisch, Deutsch und Lateinisch in Tokyo.
1913 liest er The arrow and the song von H.W. Longfellow.
1916 beginnt er sich für Literatur zu interessieren und liest Rabindranath Tagore, Dichtung und Wahrheit von Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, William Shakespeare, Walt Whitman, Mozart auf der Reise nach Prag von Eduard Mörike, Ibsen, Dostoyevsky, Nietzsche und Spinoza.
1919 liest er Hangyakusha von Arishima Takeo. Darin enthalten sind August Rodin, Jean-François Millet und Walt Whitman.

Lu, Jingruo. Yibusheng zhi ju [ID D26226].
Henrik Ibsen is considered by Lu Jingruo as a 'great writer', 'a rival of Shakespeare', and 'a significant fighter in drama reform' ; and 'the vitality expressed in his works was so forceful that it became motal'. Lu also gives a summary of the plays written by Ibsen after he was fifty years old.

Chen, Duxiu. Xian dai Ouzhou wen yi shi tan [ID D27627].
Zhou Xiaoyi : Chen says that Wilde was one of the 'four greatest modern writers' in European literature. The others are Ibsen, Turgenev, and Maeterlinck. Chen's praise is an example of the prevalent perception among Chinese writers of Wilde as a leading artist in world literature. Wilde's aesthetic practice – his way of dressing and other non-conformist behavior – further reinforces this image of Wilde as a unique artist. He was seen as the representative aesthete in England, whose reputation and achievements in art and aesthetic theory surpassed even Walter Pater and other aesthetes, although translations of Pater's works were also available in China at that time.

Yuan, Zhenying. Kui lei jia ting [ID D26170].
Er schreibt : "In 1879, the play Nora was published. The play is sometimes also calles A doll's house or The model family and is the most famous of Ibsen's best works. The purpose of the play is to expose hypocrisy in society as well as in the family. In this play, a woman's place in the family is compared to that of a bird in a golden cage. In this way, the evils of the family are revealed. A woman has her own duties, which are not in taking care of the hunsband and the children, but in her own education, independence and freedom as a real human being."
Tam Kwok-kan : As for Ghosts, Yuan regards it as a sequel to A doll's house and he thinks that the tragedy of Mrs. Alving lies precisely in her cowardice, whereas Nora's leaving homs "shows to women a hopeful future. She is an angel of revolution and a ringing bell to society". Comparing the two plays, Yuan affirms that while Ghosts is a tragedy of heredity, A doll's house is one of marriage. An enemy of the people, Yuan furthermore asserts, is a sequel to A doll's house and Ghosts. While Mars. Alving succumbs to social expectation, Dr. Stockmann revolts against it. Concerning the theme of An enemy of the people, Yuan hold the same conviction as Hu Shi that "the minority are necessarily correct, and the majority not". Yuan's study of Ibsen's plays provided the Chinese some basic ideas of the dramatist.

Song, Chunfang. Jin shi ming xi bai zhong. [One hundred well-known modern plays]. [ID D27913].
Erwähnung von Brand, Peer Gynt, A doll's house, Ghosts, An enemy of the people, The wild duck, Rosmersholm, Hedda Gabler von Henrik Ibsen.

Hu, Shi. Yibusheng zhu yi [ID D26214].
Hu Shi schreibt : "Ibsenism ! This is a difficult ropic. I am not a specialist on Ibsen, how can I be qualified to write such an essay ? However, since we have to produce an Ibsen issue, and to introduce Ibsen in a spectacular manner to China, it is necessary to provide an essay on Ibsenism. Anyway, I will offer the Ibsenism I have in mind as an introduction to the special issue."
"In Ibsen's drama, there is a prominent theme which states that society and the individual are in opposition and mutually harmful to each other. Society is aristocratic and will destroy individuality by force. It suppresses the individual's free will and independence. When individuality is lost, the spirit of freedom and independence are gone ; society will lose its vitality and will not progress.
Ibsen reveals the real nature of the family and society. His purpose is to shock the readers and let them know that there are darker sides in the family and society so as to induce them to reform and revolt - this is Ibsenism. On the surface, it is destructive, but in reality, it is constructive, but in reality, it is constructive. It is like what a doctor does in his diagnosis of an illness : can we say that this is destructive ? Although Ibsen diagnoses many diseases, he is not willing to give prescriptions. He knows that human society is a very complex organization made up of inumerable small parts. Its diseases are of many types and there is no cure-all prescription. Therefore, he only diagnoses the symptoms and let the patien find the prescription that will suit his case."
"Ibsen tells us a good way to protect the health of society. He seems to say : 'The health of the human body depends on the large number of white blood corpuscles which are always fighting with the different kinds of diseases. The health of society and the state in the same way relies on the numerous white blood corpuscles which are never satisfied and are always fighting against the evildoers. If we want to defend the health of society we need to have the white blood corpuscles like Dr. Stockman. When society has obtained the spirit of these white blood corpuscles, there is no way that it will not reform and progress."
"Nora in A doll's house suddenly discovers that the family is a stage for monkey performances and she herself is one of the monkeys. She has the courage, and does not want to wear a mask, therefore she says goodby to the stage manager and jumps down from the stage to live her own life."
"Mrs. Alving in Ghosts is a coward, thus she is persuaded by the pastor to return home and resume her role as a wife."

Elisabeth Eide : Hu Shi's version of Ibsenism as a coherent doctrine consisted of three major elements : an attack on the traditional family system, a defence of individualism, a demand for acceptance of the position of a persecuted and reviled minorty. This was needed for a China that wanted to grow strong. Chinese critics from the 1930s have generally agreed that Ibsenism was an essential part of Hu Shi's philosophy of life. The basic premise of Hu's Ibsenism was his assertion, that Ibsen pitted the individual against society in an extreme and forceful manner. According to Hu, Ibsen attributed to society evil intentions that might not be deliberate, but were unavoidable. Hu claimed that society could not progress if it did not contain the yeast of the strong individual. His exposure, in plays like Ghosts and The wild duck, of the evil forces within society. His protest against all that was moribund in the old society was set in an artistically acceptable framework that made his exposition very forceful. His creation of strong individuals serving as fresh streams in a backwater and scapegoats for society's anger. His offer of a remedy that was sufficiently loose to be applicable also in China.

Tam Kwok-kan : Hu Shi attacks the Confucian moral order as a dying institution in China. He cites Ibsen's revolutionary ideas in denouncing traditional Chinese institution of law, religion, and morality which are all based on the Confucian concept of role-self, and he regards them as social evils culminating in selfishness, slavishness, falsehood, and cowardice. The individual is seen as always being repressed by society, and Hu Shi thinks that only when traditional society collapses will the individual be freed from the repression of all traditional bondage.
Hu Shi believed that the events described in Ibsen's plays have correspondence in the real world. Realism is not treated as a technique with the purpose of creating illusions. Realism was regarded by many Chinese dramatists shallowly as a reflection on stage of an event that could be found in real life. In terms of acting, this kind of external realism has the advantage of breaking away from the traditional Chinese theatre, which is symbolic and impressionistic in style.
Hu Shi's interpretation of Nora's decision to leave home was influenced by George Bernard Shaw. He interpreted Nora as a feminist work and argued that Nora suddenly discovered that the family was a stage for monkey performances and that she herself was simply one of the performers. Hu Shi further said that Nora had 'the courage to tear off the mask, say goodby to the stage manager and jump down from the stage to live her own life, but on the other hand Mrs. Alving in Ghosts was a coward and thus she was persuaded by the pastor to return home and resume her role as a housewife'.

He Chengzhou : That he applauds Ibsen, says Hu, is because "he tells us the truth, describing the various evil situations of society so that we can have a close look at them". Hu Shi summarizes the subjects Ibsen has discussed in his plays, namely family, the social power factors (law, religon and morals) and the relationship between individual and society. At almost every point, his summary ends with an uncontrollable angry abuse of the related Chinese reality. In the last section of his essay, Hu Shi explains explicitly what he thinks Ibsenism means. "We are moved by Ibsen's descriptions of family and society and realize that our family and society are in facto so currupted that reform becomes really indispensable. And this is Ibsenism."

Danton, G[eorge] H. Henrik Ibsen [ID D26352].
Danton schreibt : "In reading Ibsen chronologically, it is of great importance to understand what was the final and accomplished by him and through what stages he reached it. Eugene Scribe's plays are all outer action, all mere juxtaposition. Ibsen, at the very outset, went deeper than that ; not only ethically but dramatically. Ibsen stoutley denied that his play was a woman's rights play or that it should be used to aid women-suffrage ; he claimed for it only the portrayal of the rights of the individual to live as he or she will, and that the fundamental note was that the great crime is the crime against personaliy. Nora leaves home, husband, and above all, children, because she realizes that she has no chance to live her life with them and that her own ego had been sullied by her husband's selfishness."

Tam Kwok-kan : Originally presented as a speech to students at Tsing Hua University, the article differs from other similar writings in that it concentrates on the artistic aspect of Ibsen's drama. As a foreigner, Danton was detached from the social problems in China and, therefore, able to look at Ibsen from a different perspective.

Luo, Shui. Jiao xi [ID D26351]. [Nora von Henrik Ibsen].
Luo Shui schreibt : "As for the idea presented in this play two levels can be discerned. First, women usually have their own opinion and behaviour. People should understand the difficulties they have and help them, but should not demand from them the viewpoint of a husband and blame them for not having it. Second, the relationship between husband and wife is difficult to maintain. Both husband and wife should tolerate each other and compromise for their common interest, and mut not act contrary to it. But husbands seldom try to determine this common interest and whenever they are dissatisfied, they act according to their natural inclinations. Women are often short-sighted and shallow in knowledge. Once separated from the husband, they will be disillusioned and become pessimistic. They will behave in the most foolish way. This is reality what everyone should be prticularly careful about."

Chen, Gu. Bulanduisi [ID D26354].
Chen schreibt : "Most English, German and French critics come to know Ibsen after he published his major plays. Their criticism is based on the speculation they can make about Ibsen. But Georg Brandes had the same mother tongue as Ibsen and as a contemporary of him, Brandes was able to follow the actual course of Ibsen's development and would not be blinded by his fame."

Yu, Shangyuan. Guo qu er shi er xi ju ming jia ji qi dai biao zuo [ID D26242].
Yu schreibt : "In the seventeen popular Ibsen plays, there are three categories : first, historico-mythical plays ; second, verse plays ; third social plays. There are six plays in the first category, three in the second and eight in the third. The most famous of course are the eight social plays, but the one most typical of Ibsen's spirit and his technique is A doll's house. Firstly, it is a tragedy of marriage and also a spiritual pillar of the modern women's movement. We have said before that the central idea of Ibsen's tragedies lies in heredity - for example Ghosts - and Ghosts is a sequel to A doll's house. Helmer is representative of 'the pillars of society', whereas Nora is of the spirit as exhibited by Selina, Mrs. Alving, and Rebecca. Secondly, the play has establised a model for the form of modern drama."

Tam Kwok-kan : Yu Shangyuan puts Ibsen's plays into three categories : the historico-mythical, verse, and social. He thinks that Nora is the most representative of the eight social plays, because the play shows every aspect of the techniques of modern playwriting. The play is treasured first of all for its feminist theme : "It is a tragedy of marriage and also a spiritual pillar of the modern women's movement. The central idea of Ibsen's tragedies lies in heredity – for example, Ghosts – and Ghosts is a sequel to Nora. Helmer is typical of the falsehood described in The pillars of society, whereas Nora is of the rebellious spirit portrayed in Selina, Mrs. Alving and Rebecca". Yu also introduces the play as a structural model for modern Chinese drama.

Aufführung von Nala = Nora von Henrik Ibsen durch das Beijing nü zi gao den shi fan xue xiao (Peking Normal College for Women).
Ren Tuo schreibt : "I believe that what China needs most is 'art for life's sake'. With regard to drama, 'problem plays' are especially needed. I wish, for instance, that Ibsen's A doll's house could be performed every day. On the fifth of this month, A doll's house was finally presented by the Beijing Normal College for Women. I was eager to see it. My conclusion is that it was a successful performance. The actors were faithful to the play. I brought along Pan Jiaxun's translation to check the performance. I found that on the whole it was highly faithful. This is why I was satisfied. My words seem rather strange. However, I always have the feeling that our art standards are sill immature. Even in our own works, we still have to take Ibsen as a model. When we perform his play, we of course have to be faithful to the original. It is inadvisable to make changes, otherwise we will only 'turn gold into iron'. Among the actresses, the one who played Nora was the best in recapturing the atmosphere of the play. Her expressions and movements were able to show the resolute character of Nora. For example, in the second half of the third act, which is the most important scene of the play, her acting was marvellous."

Lu, Xun. Nuola zou hou zen yang ? = Lu, Xun. After Nora walks out, what then ? : a talk given at the Peking Womens Normal College = Beijing shi fan da xue on December 26, 1923. [ID D26227].
What I would like to talk about today is this : After Nora walks out, what then ? Ibsen is a Norwegian literary figure who lived in the second half of the nineteenth century. His works, with the exception of a dozen or so poems, are all plays. There was a period when most of his plays dealt with social issues – these are known to the world as "realistic problem plays". Nora is one of these "problem plays". Nora is also known as Ein Puppenheim, the Chinese translation for which is Family of puppets. But the term "puppe" refers not only to puppets on strings – it also covers dolls that children play with ; by way of metaphorical extension, the term also includes people who do whatever other people tell them to do. In the beginning, Nora was living contentedly in a so-called "happy family"; but she was eventually to wake up to the fact that she was a mere puppet manipulated by her husband, and her children were puppets manipulated by her. And so she walked out. We hear the slam of the door, and then the curtain falls. But I'm sure you're already familiar with all of this, so I won't go into the details.
What would it take for Nora not to leave ? We might say that Ibsen himself has already provided us with an answer, which is the play The Lady from the Sea (Die Frau vom Meer), also translated as Sea Madame in China. This is about a woman who was already married, but had a lover before the marriage who lived across the sea. One day, the lover appeared out of nowhere and came looking for her, asking her to go away with him. She went and told her husband that she wanted to meet with this outsider. Towards the end of the play, the husband says to her : now you're totally free. You're free to choose [whether or not to leave], but you'll have to bear the consequences yourself. And that changed everything. She decided not to leave. Had Nora been given the same kind of freedom, then perhaps she would have chosen to stay put. But Nora did leave after all. What next ? Ibsen does not provide us with an answer – what's more, he's dead. But even if he weren't dead, he wouldn't have been responsible for giving us an answer anyway. This is because Ibsen is a writer of poetry – he is not the kind of person who identifies social problems and figures out solutions on our behalf. He is like an oriole : the oriole sings because it wants to sing ; it is not singing because it wants to amuse people, or because it wants people to benefit from it in some way or other. Ibsen is a man not very attuned to the ways of the world. It is said that, once, at a banquet in which some women got together to show their appreciation for his writing of A Doll's House, which gave people new insights into issues such as female self-consciousness and the emancipation of women, Ibsen announced, to everybody's surprise : "That isn't what I meant when I was writing the piece – I was simply composing poetry".
So what happens after Nora leaves ? Others have expressed their views. An Englishman once wrote a play about a 'modern' woman who walked out on her family, but then had nowhere to go and ended up a degenerate in a brothel. And there was a Chinese chap – what shall I call him ? – let's say, a writer from Shanghai – he said he had seen a version of Nora that was different from the present translationiv : Nora comes back in the end. It's a shame no one else has ever seen this version – unless Ibsen himself sent the manuscript to him. But if we were to work at it with some common sense, then Nora, really, is left with only two ways out : either go home, or go to the dogs. Because - imagine if it were a little bird. While it's true that there's no freedom in a cage, once the bird leaves the cage, there are cats and hawks and other such [predators] outside. And, if it were a bird that's been caged for so long that its wings have become paralyzed – it no longer remembers how to fly – then, really, there's no way out for this bird. Well, there is another way out, which is to starve to death. But if it starves to death, then it would no longer be living, which would mean that it would no longer have any problems to deal with – so that's hardly a valid way out.
The most painful thing in life is to wake up from a dream and have nowhere to go. People who dream are in bliss. So unless you can see a way out for these dreamers, it is important not to wake them up. Look at Tang dynasty poet Li He. Now isn't he a man who's spent his entire life in the dregs ? Yet on his deathbed he said to his mother : "Mamma, God built this mansion of white jade, and wants me to go and write a piece to celebrate the occasion". Now how can this be anything but a lie ? How can it be anything but a dream ? Yet here you have a young one facing an old one, one who's dying facing one who lives on ; [thanks to these lies and dreams] the dying one is able to die happily, and the living one lives on, at peace with oneself. It is at times like this that lies and dreams serve a great purpose. For this reason, I believe that if there is no way out, then what we need is a dream. But one should never, ever, dream of the future. Artsybashevv once used his novel to question those idealists who dreamt of building a golden world of opportunity, who encouraged others to suffer in the pursuit of this cause. He said : "You promise a golden world of opportunity to their sons and grandsons, but what have you left for they themselves to enjoy ?" Well, there is something for them to enjoy, and that is their hopes for the future. But this is to be enjoyed at a price. In order to have these hopes, the senses are fine tuned to be so acute as to feel one's pain and suffering in all their intensity; the spirit is summoned to witness one's rotting corpse of a body. At times like this, dreams and lies become vital. So I believe that if there is no way out, then what we need is a dream – not a dream of the future, but a dream in the present.
But since Nora has already woken up from her dream, it is difficult for her to return to that dream state, and she is left with no choice but to leave. Yet once she leaves, at times it seems that her only options are return or ruin. Otherwise, what we need to ask is this : Has she brought anything with her, other than her emancipated mind ? If all she has is a mauve woolen scarf like the kind you women in the audience are wearing now, then, be it a two-foot scarf or a three-foot scarf, however wide it is, it is totally useless. She needs to be rich – she needs to have possessions in her suitcase. To put it bluntly, she needs money. Dreams are fine ; otherwise money is essential...
In fact, these days, if somebody like Nora were to leave home, she probably wouldn't have too much trouble surviving, because this is a special person we're talking about – many people will sympathize with her and help her sustain a living. But relying on other people's sympathy for a living already implies giving up one's own freedom. Now suppose there were a hundred Noras who left home, then there would be a lot less sympathy to go around ; now suppose there were tens of thousands of Noras who left home – people would start to get annoyed. Far more reliable [than sympathy] would be to have some form of economic leverage in one's own hands.
Now if we manage to acquire economic freedom, does this mean that we are no longer puppets manipulated by others ? Puppets we still are. The only difference is that we are less at the mercy of others, and have more people under our thumbs. Because, in modern society, it's not just women who are at the mercy of men, men are at the mercy of other men, and women at the mercy of other women ; there are also men who are at the mercy of women – this isn't something that will change overnight with a few women acquiring economic privileges. But then again we can't just sit there hungrily waiting for our ideal world to drop out of the sky ; like a fish lying on a wagon trail desperate for a sprinkling of water, we need something to ease our gasping, and the quest for down-to-earth economic privileges does just that – it is something to keep us going while we ponder other alternatives. Then again, so far we've been treating Nora as an ordinary person. Suppose she was special. Suppose she was the kind of person who would be willing to stick her neck out for others – that would make it a different story altogether. We have no right to encourage or entice people to make sacrifices ; nor do we have the right to stop people from sacrificing themselves. Mind you, the world is full of people all too happy to make sacrifices, all too happy to suffer pain...
A pity it is that change does not come easily in China – this is a place where anything from moving a table to refitting a stove will almost always end in bloodshed – and the shedding of blood does not always guarantee that the table can be moved, that the stove can be refitted. It will take some hard lashing on the back with a giant whip [to bring about change] – China simply is not going to move of its own accord. I believe this lashing is going to come sooner or later (whether or not it’s a good thing is another matter), but China is definitely going to be hit hard. As for where this blow will come from, how it's going to come, I really cannot say with any certainty. And that concludes my talk.

He Chengzhou : In his lecture, Lu Xun is not so much concerned with Ibsen's Nora as with the fate of a Chinese woman who dares to leave home. It seems that he only borrows the image of Nora and develops it into a polemic about the current situation of Chinese women. The solution for a Chinese Nora, according to Lu Xun, is that she will 'either degrade herself, or come back home... another alternative is to starve to death'. For women to avoid being puppets, it is very important to have equal economic rights with men. 'First, there must be a fair sharing between men and women in the family ; secondly, women should enjoy equal rights with men in society'. But Lu Xun immediately confesses that he has no idea about how women can win these rights. All he knows is that they must fight for it, and fight hard.

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Guo min zhi di. Tao Lügong [Tao Menghe] yi. In : Xin Qing nian ; vol. 4, no 6 ; vol. 5, no 1-4 (June-Okt. 1918). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. En folkefiende : skuespil i fem akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ein Volksfeind : Schauspiel in 5 Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, ca. 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. An enemy of the people. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Uraufführung Christiania Theater, Oslo 1883]. [Teilübersetzung].
国民之

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Kui lei jia ting. Chen Gu yi. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1918). (Shuo bu cong shu ; 3, 51). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Et Dukkehjem : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1879). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora oder ein Puppenheim : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1889). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora. (London : Griffith, Farran & Co., 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. A doll's house. (London : T.F. Unwin, 1889). [Erstaufführung Det Kongelige Teater, Kopenhagen 1879]. [Erste vollständige chinesische Übersetzung von Nora von Ibsen].
傀儡家庭

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Nuola. Hu Shi, Luo Jialun yi. In : Xin Qing nian ; vol. 4, no 6 (1918). = [Ibsen, Henrik]. Nuola. Yibusheng yuan zhu ; Hu Shi, Luo Jialun he yi. (Shanghai : Qi ming shu ju, 1936). [Basiert auf der englischen Übersetzung von William Archer 1906]. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Et Dukkehjem : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1879). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora oder ein Puppenheim : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1889). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora. (London : Griffith, Farran & Co., 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. A doll's house. (London : T.F. Unwin, 1889). [Erstaufführung Det Kongelige Teater, Kopenhagen 1879]. [Erste Übersetzung ; Teilübersetzung].
娜拉

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Xiao Aiyoufu. Wu Ruonan yi. In : Xin Qing nian ; vol. 4, no 6 ; vol. 5, no 3 (June, Sept. 1918). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Lille Eyolf. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1894). = Ibsen, Henrik. Klein Eyolf. (Berlin : S. Fischer, 1895). = Ibsen, Henrik. Little Eyolf : a play in 3 acts. (London : William Heinemann, 1895). [Uraufführung Deutsches Theater Berlin, 1895]. [Teilübersetzung].
小爱友夫

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Qun gui. Pan Jiaxun yi. In : Xin chao ; vol. 1, no 5 (May 1919). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Gengangere : et familjedrama i tre akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1881). = Ibsen, Henrik. Gespenster : ein Familiendrama in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ghosts : a family drama in three acts. (Auckland : Floating Press, 1881). [Uraufführung Aurora Turner Hall Chicago, 1882]. [Erste vollständige Übersetzung].
群鬼

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Hai shang fu ren. Yibosheng ; Yang Xichu yi. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1920). (Gong xue she wen xue cong shu). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Fruen fra havet : skuespil i fem akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1888). = Ibsen, Henrik. Die Frau vom Meer : Schauspiel : mit dem Scenarium. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1889). = Ibsen, Henrik. The lady from the sea. (London : T.F. Unwin, 1890). [Uraufführung Hoftheater Weimar und Christiania Theater, Oslo 1889].
海上夫人

[Ibsen, Henrik]. She hui zhu shi. Zhou Shoujuan yi. In : Xiao shuo yue bao ; vol. 11, no 4-12 (1920). = Vol. 1-2. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1921). (Shuo bu cong shu ; 4, 5). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Samfundets stotter : skuespil i fire akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1877). = Ibsen, Henrik. Stützen der Gesellschaft : Schauspiel in vier Aufzügen. Unter Mitwirkung von Emma Klingenfeld veranstaltete deutsche Originalausgabe der "Samfundets stötter". (München : T. Ackermann, 1878). = Ibsen, Henrik. The pillars of society. (London : W. Scott, 1888). [Uraufführung Odense Teater, Dänemark 1877].
社會柱石

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Mei nie. Yibusheng ; Lin Qinnan [Lin Shu] yu, Mao Wenzhong tong yi. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1921). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Gengangere : et familjedrama i tre akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1881). = Ibsen, Henrik. Gespenster : ein Familiendrama in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ghosts : a family drama in three acts. (Auckland : Floating Press, 1881).
梅孽

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Jian zhu shi. Mao Wenzhong, Wu Qirui yi. In : Chen bao fu kann ; 1-31 Okt. (1922). (Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Bygmester Solness : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1892). = Ibsen, Henrik. Baumeister Solness : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : P. Reclam ; Berlin : S. Fischer, 1893). = Ibsen, Henrik. The master buildner. (London : Heinemann, 1892). [Uraufführung Lessingtheater Berlin, 1893].
建築師

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Shao nian tong meng. Wu Qirui yi. In : Chen bao fu kann ; 5-26 Jan. (1923). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. De unges forbund : lystspil i 5 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1869). = Ibsen, Henrik. Der Bund der Jugend : Lustspiel in fünf Aufzügen. (Berlin : Paetel, 1872). = Ibsen, Henrik. The league of youth. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Uraufführung Christiania Theater, Oslo 1869].
少年同

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Ye ya. Yang Jingci yi. In : Chen bao fu kan ; 11 Febr.-8 March (1924). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Vildanden : skuespil i fem akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendalske, 1884). = Ibsen, Henrik. Die Wildente : Schauspiel in fünf Aufzügen. (Leipzig : P. Reclam, 1887). = Ibsen, Hendrik. The wild duck. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Urauffährung Den nationale Scene, Berngen 1885].
野鴨

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Kui lei zhi jia ting. Ouyang Yuqian yi. In : Guo wen zhou bao ; 19 Avril, 26 Avril, 3 May (1925). Adaption und Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Et Dukkehjem : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1879). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora oder ein Puppenheim : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1889). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora. (London : Griffith, Farran & Co., 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. A doll's house. (London : T.F. Unwin, 1889). [Erstaufführung Det Kongelige Teater, Kopenhagen 1879].
傀儡家之庭

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Yibusheng ji. Pan Jiaxun yi. Vol. 1-2. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1926). (Shi jie cong shu). = [Ibsen, Henrik]. Yibusheng ji. Pan Jiaxun yi : Hu Shi jiao. Vol. 1-5 in 1. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1931). (Han yi shi jie ming zhu. Wan you wen ku ; 1, 866).
易卜生集
[Enthält] :
Nuola. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Et Dukkehjem : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1879). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora oder ein Puppenheim : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1889). = Ibsen, Henrik. Nora. (London : Griffith, Farran & Co., 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. A doll's house. (London : T.F. Unwin, 1889). [Erstaufführung Det Kongelige Teater, Kopenhagen 1879]. 娜拉

Qun gui. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Gengangere : et familjedrama i tre akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1881). = Ibsen, Henrik. Gespenster : ein Familiendrama in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ghosts : a family drama in three acts. (Auckland : Floating Press, 1881). [Uraufführung Aurora Turner Hall Chicago, 1882]. 群鬼

Shao nian dang. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. De unges forbund : lystspil i 5 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1869). = Ibsen, Henrik. Der Bund der Jugend : Lustspiel in fünf Aufzügen. (Berlin : Paetel, 1872). = Ibsen, Henrik. The league of youth. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Uraufführung Christiania Theater, Oslo 1869]. 少年當

Guo min gong di. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. En folkefiende : skuespil i fem akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1882). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ein Volksfeind : Schauspiel in 5 Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, ca. 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. An enemy of the people. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Uraufführung Christiania Theater, Oslo 1883]. 國民公敵

Da jiang. Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Bygmester Solness : skuespil i 3 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1892). = Ibsen, Henrik. Baumeister Solness : Schauspiel in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : P. Reclam ; Berlin : S. Fischer, 1893). = Ibsen, Henrik. The master buildner. (London : Heinemann, 1892). [Uraufführung Lessingtheater Berlin, 1893]. 大匠

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Luoshima zhuang. Liu Boliang yi. (Beijing : Cheng xue hui, 1926). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Rosmersholm : skuespil i fire akter. (Kobenhaven : Gyldendal, 1886). = Ibsen, Henrik. Rosmersholm : Schauspiel in 4 Akten. (Berlin : S. Fischer, 1887). = Ibsen, Henrik. Rosmersholm : a play in four acts. (London : Griffith, Farran & Co., 1889). [Uraufführung Den Nationale Scene, Bergen, 1887].
羅士馬莊

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Haide Jiabolei. Pan Jiaxun yi. In : Xiao shuo yue bao ; vol. 19, no 3-5 (10. März-10. Mai 1928). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Hedda Gabler : skuespil i fire akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendalske, 1890). = Ibsen, Henrik. Hedda Gabler : Schauspiel in 4 Aufzügen. (Leizig : Reclam, 1890). = Ibsen, Henrik. Hedda Gabler : a drama in four acts. (London : Heinemann, 1890). [Uraufführung Residenztheater München, 1891].
海得•加勃勒

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Wo men si ren zai xing shi. Pan Jiaxun yi. In : Xiao shuo ye bao ; Vol. 20, no 10-12 (1929). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Naar vi dode vaagner. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1899). = Ibsen, Henrik. Wenn wir Toten erwachen : ein dramatischer Epilog in drei Akten. (Berlin : S. Fischer, 1900). = Ibsen, Henrik. When we dead awaken. (London : Heinemann, 1900). [Uraufführung Königliches Hoftheater Stuttgart, 1900]

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Ye ya. Xu Gudi yi. (Shanghai : Xian dai shu ju, 1929). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Vildanden : skuespil i fem akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendalske, 1884). = Ibsen, Henrik. Die Wildente : Schauspiel in fünf Aufzügen. (Leipzig : P. Reclam, 1887). = Ibsen, Hendrik. The wild duck. (London : W. Scott, 1890). [Urauffährung Den nationale Scene, Berngen 1885].
野鴨

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Gui. Fang Letian yi. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1930). (Ou mei ming ju xuan). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. Gengangere : et familjedrama i tre akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1881). = Ibsen, Henrik. Gespenster : ein Familiendrama in drei Aufzügen. (Leipzig : Reclam, 1883). = Ibsen, Henrik. Ghosts : a family drama in three acts. (Auckland : Floating Press, 1881). [Uraufführung Aurora Turner Hall Chicago, 1882].
鬼

[Ibsen, Henrik]. Bokemen.Pan Jiaxun yi. In : Xiao shuo ye bao ; vol. 22, no 9-12 (10. Sept.-10-Dez.1931). Übersetzung von Ibsen, Henrik. John Gabriel Borkman : skuespil i 4 akter. (Kobenhavn : Gyldendal, 1896). = Ibsen, Henrik. John Gabriel Borkman : Schauspiel in vier Aufzügen. (Paris ; Leipzig : A. Langen, 1897). = Ibsen, Henrik. John Gabriel Borkman. (London : Heinemann., 1896). [Zwei Uraufführungen Finnisches Nationaltheater = Suomen Kansallisteatter, Helsinki und am Svenska Teatern, Helsingfors, 1897]
博克门

Zhong, Yao [Zhou, Zuoren]. Bai nian lai xi yang xue shu zhi hui gu. In : Xue bao ; vol. 1, no 19 (1908). [A review of Western scholarship in the past one hundred years ; Erwähnung von Henrik Ibsen und Bjornstjerne Martinius Bjornson].
百年來西洋學術之回顧

[Huneker, James Gibbons]. Yibusheng. Pei Qingbiao yi. In : Tsing hua journal ; vol. 5, no 1 (1919). Übersetzung von Huneker, James Gibbons. Henrik Ibsen. In : Huneker, James Gibbons. Egoists : a book of supermen. (New York, N.Y. : Scribner, 1909).
易卜生

Chen, Daqi ; Guo, Yaogen. Jin dai si xiang (shang xia ce). Vol. 1-2. (Shanghai : Shang wu yin shu guan, 1920). (Shang zhi xue hui cong shu). [Abhandlung über Gustave Flaubert, Leonardo da Vinci, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Friedrich Nietzsche, Leo Tolstoy, Max Stirner, Fyodor Dostoyevsky, Henrik Ibsen, Charles Darwin, Emile Zola, Rudolph Eucken, Henr Bergson, Rabindranath Tagore, Romain Rolland].
近代思想 ( 上 , 下册 )

Yu, Shangyuan. Guo qu er shi er xi ju ming jia ji qi dai biao zuo. In : Chen bao fu kann ; 9-31 October 1922. [Twenty-two famous dramatists and their representative works ; enthält Henrik Ibsen].
過去二十二戲劇名家及其代表作

Lu, Xun. Nuola zou hou zen yang ? (1923) = Lu, Xun. After Nora walks out, what then ? : a talk given at the Peking Womens Normal College = Beijing shi fan da xue on December 26, 1923. In a new translation by Wen-Chao Li.
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